Symbol and Referent

            The “Theory of Meaning” is a concept that has been present in communication since the first humans learned to communicate. As communicators, we are aware that nearly everything we say has meaning on some level to ourselves as well as those we share our words with. The fundamental difference between how we previously looked at meaning and how Ogden and Richards look at it is that many scholars argue that for every word, there is a single, correct meaning associated with it (Craig Online, 2002). Ogden and Richards counter this claim with their theory of “Proper Meaning Superstition,” which states that there is not a single “correct” meaning associated with each and every word because each word means something different to each person, or more simply, meanings don’t reside in words, they reside in people (Erickstad, 1998).

     Consider, for example, the word cold. Since there are variations in word meaning among people, if one were to ask someone what the word cold means, he or she would likely get a response pertaining to a condition in temperature. However, consider the advent of slang and, again, ask someone what the word cold means and one could receive a response pertaining to types of attitudes expressed toward other people or objects. Now, consider the previous example spread throughout the languages of the world and one could perceive the problem of meaning and how there can be no single “correct” meaning for any word.

     In order to correct the problems associated with “Meaning Theory,” Ogden and Richards developed “Definition Theory.” It is imperative for one to understand that when a person speaks, the words he or she chooses mean different things to different people. One may agree that a term best suited to describe this condition is ambiguity. According to Ogden and Richards, the best way to solve the ambiguity problem is to provide a definition of various terms or concepts (Erickstad, 1998). This can be accomplished in many ways. One might choose to offer an explicit definition of the term or concept being used, or he or she could opt to use the term in such a way as to project the definition through the combination of other words that share the same universal meaning. For instance, if a speaker stated that another person was cold, based on the example dealing with meaning, two inferences could be drawn. First, one could assume that the person being discussed is physically, or temperately, cold. Similarly, one could infer that the person has projected an attitude that is undesirable toward another person or object. Another option, expressed by Ogden and Richards is the use of metaphor. Metaphors aid in the creation of definitions by forming a link between the word or idea and an experience he or she and the audience may share. If the speaker were to either define the term or use other words to “prop” up the definition with the use of metaphor, the meaning becomes clear. For instance, if the speaker stated that he or she has spoken to another person who always emits a negative demeanor in conversation and that his or her attitude appears cold the meaning is evident.

     Finally, Ogden and Richards developed the “Symbol Theory” in order to explain how words expressed in communication evoke images, thus providing a personal meaning based on experience. Symbols are inherently arbitrary by themselves, however, when used in conjunction with one another, meaning is created for the ideas being expressed. Problems in communication arise when people attempt to communicate through the use of arbitrary words because they have no exact or clear meaning. Words are variables that can assume different meanings depending on the context in which they are used (Erickstad, 1998). A good example of a symbol is text. Text, by itself, is meaningless, as it draws no relation to anything outside itself. However, when we combine text with a word and even a picture, we create a workable definition from which to operate. This is the fundamental principle behind Ogden and Richards’ theory.

     Ogden and Richards categorize meanings in terms of signs and symbols where signs are natural representations of something beyond themselves, such as a sound, whereas symbols are specialized types of signs, such as text (Cahill, 1998). In both cases, signs and symbols are meaningless unto themselves. Consider the word “cat.” Alone, the word has no meaning, as it does not resemble what we perceive to be a cat, nor does it possess any direct link to the sounds or behaviors of a cat, as we know it, thus the word is merely an arbitrary symbol. Ogden and Richards use the idea of “natural association” to link signs and symbols with actual objects such as a cat (Cahill, 1998).

 In order to illustrate his point that there is a direct relationship between symbols and thought, Ogden and Richards created the “Semantic Triangle.” The triangle is a simple model in which the three factors involved with the statement or idea are placed in the corners and the relationships between them are represented by the sides (Ogden and Richards, 1927, p. 10). An example of how this idea works is as follows: 

One peak of the triangle would be the symbol (a word). Another peak would be a thought, such as words to describe the symbol. Finally, the image we create in our minds would become the referent. Through the use of the Semantic Triangle, Ogden and Richards believe they have found a way to connect all words to their meaning (Erickstad, 1998). There are relationships between all three factors, represented by the sides of the triangle. The relationship between the thought and symbol are causal, meaning the symbol evokes an attitude or a proposed effect on another person. Similarly, there is a relationship between the thought and the referent, though the relationship can be either direct, such as something we can see in front of us, or indirect, such as an image or idea about something we have seen in another instance. Finally, the relationship between the symbol and the referent is purely indirect in that it is an arbitrary relationship created by someone who wishes the symbol to represent the referent (Ogden and Richards, 1927, p. 11). As demonstrated by the illustration above, the word “dog” is associated in the mind of the reader as a particular animal. The word is not the animal, but the association links the two, thus all three elements are required in an irreducible triad for the signs to operate correctly (Littlejohn, 2002).

        A unique and fascinating quality of Ogden and Richards’ theory is that it implies meaning can be arbitrarily exchanged without the need to understand how one another feels. What this means is that so long as definitions are created that all parties agree to, feelings regarding those definitions are inconsequential. In fact, according to Ogden and Richards (1927, p. 15), “Whenever we hear anything said, we spring spontaneously to an immediate conclusion, namely, that the speaker is referring to what we should be referring to were we speaking the words ourselves.”

semantic learner